Legionnaires' disease is a multi-system illness that is caused by Legionella bacteria (a gram-negative bacteria known as legionella pneumophila). The bacteria spread through the environment from man-made and naturally occurring water bodies, such as lakes, rivers, hot springs. It then enters the respiratory tract (lungs) through droplets (small drop of a liquid). Legionnaires' disease is not transmitted from one person to another.

Legionnaires' Disease Risk Factors

The following are risk factors that increases the chances of catching legionnaires' disease;

Legionnaires' Disease Symptoms

Legionnaires' disease usually affects the lungs (the primary organ of infection). However, it can also affects other organs. The incubation period of the Legionnaire's disease is between 2 to 10 days. On average, symptoms start appearing within 6 day after you have been exposed to legionella bacteria.

 

Initially, Legionnaires' symptoms are similar to flu like and may include;

As the disease progresses, symptoms becomes more severe and may include;

Legionnaires' Disease Diagnostic Tests
Tests used to diagnose Legionnaires' disease include;

Legionnaires' Disease Treatment and Management

Since Legionnaires' disease is a bacterial infection, various types of macrolides antibiotics are used to treat it. The most commonly type of macrolides antibiotics used is Azithromycin (Zithromax).

Prevention of Legionnaires' Disease

Norovirus is a type of virus that is responsible for causing gastroenteritis. Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the intestines and stomach, characterized by diarrhea and vomiting. The incubation period of noravirus is between 24-48 hours but symptoms may start appearing as early as 12 hours after exposure.  Noroviruses usually spread through food like oysters, raw salads, water that has been contaminated with faeces.  It can also spread via close contact with an infected person.

Norovirus Risk Factors

Norovirus Symptoms

The following are signs and symptoms of Norovirus infection;

Norovirus Diagnosis

Norovirus is diagnosed by the looking at the presenting clinical symptoms and stool testing. Stool testing help in identifying the cause of infection (bacteria or virus). The two tests that are commonly used are; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) - used to detect norovirus antigens (less common) and the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) - used to detect norovirus nucleic acid (most common).

Norovirus is a viral infection, hence it is self limiting. How long it takes to heal depends on the  immunity and the overall health status of an individual. Any treatment given is geared towards correcting or preventing dehydration. For patients who can tolerate oral fluids, they are encouraged to drink a lot of water.  For patients who cannot tolerate oral fluids, they may need to be hospitalized for intravenous fluid and electrolytes replacement.  

 

Norovirus Complications

In most cases, norovirus usually heal on its own after a few days. However, the infection my sometimes lead to serious complication, especially in children and elderly. Complications associated with Norovirus infection include; malnutrition, severe dehydration that may lead to hypotension, electrolyte imbalance and eventually to system collapse.

 

Norovirus Prognosis

The condition is usually self-limiting and it has no lasting effects. In most people, the infection usually clears up after 2-3 days and any complication usually arise from severe dehydration.

 

Norovirus Prevention

The following are some of the measures that you can take to prevent getting infected or spreading the infection;

Meningitis is the inflammation of the meninges of the brain. Meninges are the three  protective membranes of the brain; dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater that  enclose the brain and spinal cord. Meningitis is classified into two types; Septic and Aseptic Meningitis. Septic Meningitis is caused by bacteria while Aseptic Meningitis is due to viral, fungi or secondary to other conditions, such as; HIV/AIDs, leukemia or lymphoma that weakens the immune system.

The most common causative agents of Meningitis in adults is the Neisseria Meningitidis  and Streptococcus Pneumoniae. Haemophilus Influenzae is a common cause in children who may not have received adequate immunization against the infection. 

How Do You Get Meningitis?

Meningitis is transmitted through;

 

The causative agent crosses the blood brain barrier, reaches the brain through the infected bloodstream and proliferates in the cerebral spinal fluid leading to meninges inflammation. In bacterial Meningitis, study of the CSF (cerebral spinal fluid) demostrates increased white blood cells, increased protein and decreased glucose. 

 

Meningitis Risk Factors

 

Meningitis Signs and Symptoms

The initial signs of Meningitis is headache and fever. The temperature constantly remains high during illness, accompanied by a throbbing or a steady headache due to irritation of the meninges.

 

Other  signs and symptoms of Meningitis are;

 

Diagnosis of Meningitis

 

How to Treat Meningitis

The effectiveness of the treatment of meningitis depends on how early the infection is caught and prompt adminsitration of right antibiotics that will be able to cross the brain barrier on time to stop the inflammation or multiplication of the bacteria. Commonly used antibiotics is Penicillin class of antibiotics and corticosteroids like Dexamethasone.  Shock, dehydration is treated with fluid replacement and Seizure precaution is initiated.

 

Meningitis Prevention

Dengue Fever also known as "Breakbone" or "Dandy Fever" is a viral infection caused by mosquito vector Aedes aegypti. Dengue fever is more common in subtropic, tropic regions and among frequent travellers. It is trasmitted through mosquito bites, when an infected mosquito bites a healthy person. 

Dengue Fever (Grade I)

Dengue Fever is usually classified as Grade I since the symptoms are usually mild. 

Dengue Symptoms

 

Dengue Fever Complications

Dengue fever usually heals after a week or so and most people are able to recover fully. However, possible complications associated with Dengue fever are; severe dehydration and febrile convulsions due to high fever.

Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever

Dengue Virus Diagnosis

Dengue fever is diagnosed by looking at three main symptoms; Fever, rash and pain, known as the "Dengue Triad".
 

Other tests that are performed are;

 

Treatment For Dengue

Since Dengue is a viral disease, there is no treatment that is available. Patients are usually encouraged to increase fluid intake to avoid dehydration, pain relievers are given (Acetaminophen or Paracetamol) health teaching about dengue prevention and patient is advised to avoid taking aspirin since it increases the risk of bleeding.

 

In severe form of  Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, apart from pain relievers, platelet transfusion and intensive rehydration therapy is usually implemented.

 

Dengue Fever Prevention

The following are a few things that you can do to protect yourself or your children from dengue;

Whooping Cough also known as Pertussis is an infection of the respiratory system caused by Bordetella Pertussis; a gram-negative bacterium. It is highly contagious and can easily be transmitted from one person to another by direct or indirect contact. Direct contact occurs when a healthy person comes into contact with infected drops either by touching or by inhaling.

Indirect contact is through droplets (inhalation of liquid particles exhaled by an infected person through coughing, sneezing which are usually suspended on the air). Once a person is infected with Bacterium Bordetella Pertussis, initial symptoms may start showing anytime between 5 to 21 days.  This is what we call the incubation period (the time between the infection and the onset of signs and symptoms).

 

Whooping cough is more common in children under 6 months since at this stage, they have not yet received the required immunization to protect them and only a little passive immunity is transfered from the mother. It is also common among older children with immunity problems or weakened immune system.

 

Whooping Cough Symptoms

Whooping cough symptoms are divided into three stages; Catarrhal, Paroxysmal and Convalescent.

 

Whooping Cough Catarrhal Stage

Catarrhal Stage is the initial stage which manifest itself with symptoms of upper respiratory infection or common cold, such as;

 

 

These symptoms usually last for 1 to 2 weeks. In some children, the only sign that might be present is a mild cough.

 

Whooping Cough Paroxysmal Stage

This is the second and most severe stage of disease progression.  At this stage, the cough changes from mild to paroxysmal.  Paroxysmal stage is characterized by the following symptoms:

 

 

Whooping cough paroxysmal symptoms may last between 4-6 weeks. This is because even though the bacterium responsible for the infection is cleared, the cough may still continue. In older children and adults, the whooping cough paroxysmal symptoms tends to be less severe and appear like a mild form of a respiratory infection.

 

Whooping Cough Convalescent Stage

This is the final and symptoms cessation stage. At this stage,  the symptoms of whooping cough gradually start to improve. Even though the cough may be present for sometimes longer, it appears as a single cough but not with other symptoms (paroxysmal). For children who develop upper respiratory infection a year after, may shows some paroxysmal signs and symptoms, such as coughing and vomiting.

 

Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Diagnosis

Pertussis is simply diagnosed by looking at its striking symptom; the "whooping cough". However, in children who are younger than 6 month, cough may be absent, making it even harder to diagnose.

 

Other tests that may be performed are; culture of Bordetella Pertussis Bacterium during Paroxysmal and Catarrhal Stages and blood test (white blood cells count).

 

Treatment for Pertussis

Infected individuals are most contagious during the first weeks of symptoms. However, as long as the person is coughing, he or she is still capable of transmitting it. Children are usually treated  with a strong dose of antibiotics. These antibiotics shortens the communicability period and the duration of the symptoms. Droplet precaution is put in place until atleast 5 days later after an effective antibiotic therapy has been implemented.

 

Children are also maintained on bed rest to decrease the distress, until when the paroxysmal signs and symptoms subside.

 

Pertussis Complications

Possible complications associated with Pertussis are;

 

Whooping Cough Prevention

Whooping Cough  can be prevented through vaccination with  DTaP (diphtheria, tetanus, acellular pertussis) immunization, given on the first immunization schedule. Children who may not have been immunized or those with compromised immune system may be given immune globulin to prevent them from contracting the infection.